HIST 381: Digital History

Japanese American Internment during World War II

Introduction: December 7th, 1941 will always be one of the most remembered days in US history. Before Pearl Harbor was attacked there were over a hundred thousand Japanese Americans in the United States. Once Pearl Harbor was, most of the Japanese Americans in the US were taken away and judged as if they were a part of the attack. But do we really know how many were taken away and what happened when they were taken? Through this research project I will go over how many Japanese Americans were incarcerated and why they were, how they were treated while in the camps and how long they were in the camps, and then end with the closure of the camps and what happened years after they were free.
First Primary Source: The number of Japanese Americans incarcerated and the reasons why they were held in camps. A couple months into World War II president Franklin D Roosevelt signed executive order 9066 on February 9th, 1942. Executive order 9066 was an order that was to relocate Japanese Americans into internment camps. Over the next twelve-twenty four months there was an estimated 120,000 Japanese Americans located in the internment camps for the duration of World War II. Of the 120,000 Japanese Americans an estimated 60 percent were American-born children of immigrants from Japan, or were Japanese children that were born in the US and were American citizens, the remaining 40 percent were Japanese immigrants.

• More than 110,000 innocent people based on their ancestry were in what Roosevelt called “concentration camps.” Although two-thirds were U.S. citizens, they were targeted because of their ancestry and the way they looked.
o “What does an American look like?”
o http://www.densho.org/causes/default.asp
• Roosevelt’s Executive Order 9066, dated February 19, 1942, this order gave the military the power to relocate any citizen to an internment camp. What some people didn’t realize is that Executive Order 9066 was also applied to smaller numbers of residents of the United States who were of Italian or German descent.
o “Executive Order 9066: The President Authorizes Japanese Relocation”
o http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154/
• The majority (60 percent) of the Japanese people in the internment camps were US citizens of Japanese ancestry. The other 40 percent of them interned were Japanese “resident aliens”, although many had lived in the United States for decades.
o “Captured: The Japanese internment of American civilians in the Philippines, 1941-1945”
o http://books.google.com/books?id=OFKtPQHvFHsC&pg=PA208&lpg=PA208&dq=captured:+the+japanese+internment&source=bl&ots=ElIQ9Phxhe&sig=wnvNA8WqhQ0WJNOXTX34RrtOs0A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=__xyUMmUNu3KiAK8sYGIDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA
Second Primary Source: How the Japanese Americans were treated in the internment camps and how long they were there. The U.S. internment camps were overcrowded and were in very poor living conditions. Japanese Americans slept under as many blankets as they were given. Food was rationed out and was served by fellow internees in a mess hall of 250-300 people. Eventually the government allowed internees to leave the concentration camps if they enlisted in the U.S. Army. This offer was not well received. Only 1,200 internees chose to do so. There were ten internment camps in the US. The Japanese Americans were in the internment camps for a little over two years.
• The ten camps were located in Amache, Colorado, Gila River, Arizona, Heart Mountain, Wyoming, Jerome, Arkansas, Manzanar, California, Minidoka, Idaho, Poston, Arizona, Topaz, Utah, Tula Lake California, and San Francisco, California. All the camps besides San Francisco were located in smaller areas and the Japanese Americans were treated very poorly throughout their time there.
o Japanese Internment
o http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1679.html
• The food was barely eatable and was rationed out between all the internees throughout the camp. The food was served by fellow internees in a room with around 300 people.
o “Captured: The Japanese internment of American civilians in the Philippines, 1941-1945”
o http://books.google.com/books?id=OFKtPQHvFHsC&pg=PA208&lpg=PA208&dq=captured:+the+japanese+internment&source=bl&ots=ElIQ9Phxhe&sig=wnvNA8WqhQ0WJNOXTX34RrtOs0A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=__xyUMmUNu3KiAK8sYGIDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA
• There was one way to get out on the internment camps and that was to enlist in the U.S Army. Not a lot of Japanese Americans chose to enlist but the ones that did enlist were apart of 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team.
o “Fighting for Democracy”
o http://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm

Third Primary Source: The closure of the Japanese American internment camps and many years after. In 1944 about two years after signing Executive Order 9066, President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the closure of the internment camps. The last internment camp was closed by the end of 1945. After the Japanese Americans got out of the internment camps, around 5,766 Nisei ultimately renounced their American citizenship. Over forty years later in 1987 U.S. House of Representatives formally apologized to the former evacuees and provided $1.2 billion as compensation.
• Two years after signing Executive Order 9066, Japanese Americans were finally becoming free. The last camp was closed in 1945.
o “Japanese American Internment Camps”
o http://www.bookrags.com/research/japanese-american-internment-camps-sjpc-02/
• It wasn’t until 1976 when our president Gerald Ford said the evacuation and internment camps was the wrong thing to do. It was no surprise that around 6,000 renounced their American citizenship after the way they were treated.
o “Japanese American Internment Camps”
o http://www.bookrags.com/research/japanese-american-internment-camps-sjpc-02/
• Later on in the late 1980’s the U.S House of Representatives formally apologized. They provided 1.2 billion dollars in compensation, but money doesn’t buy back two plus years of being in internment camps.
o “Japanese American Internment Camps”
o http://www.bookrags.com/research/japanese-american-internment-camps-sjpc-02/

Conclusion: Even though the U.S apologized and compensated 1.2 billion dollars to the Japanese Americans I still don’t know if I would accept their apology. Two years in internment camps with 300 plus people and poor conditions doesn’t seem like a great two years to live your life. Like I said money is nice but it doesn’t get two years of your life back. And the worst part of this whole period of time is that they were incarcerated by the way that they looked. Back then it probably was the right thing to do because of the affect that Pearl Harbor had on us Americans, but Japanese Americans were incarcerated for two years just based on how they were born. They couldn’t help it and they were judged right away and their rights were taken from them.
Primary Sources:
• This had a lot of information throughout about the three topics I talked about. Especially the after effects of the internment camps and the compensation given to the Japanese Americans after the camps were out.
o “Japanese American Internment Camps”
http://www.bookrags.com/research/japanese-american-internment-camps-sjpc-02/

• This was a book that I used a lot to talk about the conditions of the of the camps and how many people and how long they were there.
o “Captured: The Japanese internment of American civilians in the Philippines, 1941-1945”
http://books.google.com/books?id=OFKtPQHvFHsC&pg=PA208&lpg=PA208&dq=captured:+the+japanese+internment&source=bl&ots=ElIQ9Phxhe&sig=wnvNA8WqhQ0WJNOXTX34RrtOs0A&hl=en&sa=X&ei=__xyUMmUNu3KiAK8sYGIDg&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA

• This also had a lot of information about the three topics in my research project. It was very long and informational and went over a lot of things for the Japanese Americans and for people to be put in their shoes when reading everything they had to do.
o “Fighting for Democracy”
http://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm
Secondary Sources:
• This was used as a source to find some information on what the internment camps were like and how the Japanese Americans were treated.
o Japanese Internment
o http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1679.html
• This was used to figure out what exactly the Executive Order 9066 was and what it exactly did. It was pretty useful and well explained.
o “Executive Order 9066: The President Authorizes Japanese Relocation”
o http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5154/
• This had a lot of insight as to why the Japanese Americans were locked up for the way that they looked. It was a Japanese source and it really put it into perspective as to what the Japanese Americans went through during the camps.
o What does an American look like?”
o http://www.densho.org/causes/default.asp
Digital Reflection: When I first started this project I was kind of worried about researching Japanese Americans because whenever I watched the movie “Pearl Harbor” or read anything about Pearl Harbor I would always get angry with Japan. I did a lot of research on the Japanese Americans and what they all went through and during a two year period.
I learned quite a bit about the Japanese Americans and in the end it really made me feel bad for them. Like I said in my project before I do understand why us Americans put the Japanese in camps because we were trying to protect our country, but at the same time it was awful how we did it. We just took people based off of looks and we didn’t give them a chance. So in the end I gained a lot of respect for the Japanese Americans that went through the internment camps. I do think that they did deserve compensation but in the end it doesn’t fix what they had to go through and I think that we at least did the right thing and apologized and gave them compensation.
The fact that I picked this topic based off of me knowing a lot about Pearl Harbor turned out to be completely different than I thought it was going to be. I thought this topic would have a little to do with World War II but it really didn’t have much to do with that besides that Roosevelt said that one way to get out of camps was to serve in the U.S. Army. I learned a lot about the Japanese American culture and in the end it was good to learn about something that I initially had zero interest and never thought I would learn anything about.
Overall I liked this project but it was tough trying to find a lot of sources. Honestly I don’t know if I would be able to write fifteen to twenty pages on this topic. Using books instead of websites is a lot tougher because I am used to finding everything on the internet. So that limited me quite a bit when trying to find a lot of the information I was looking for. The nice thing about books though is that there usually isn’t too many liabilities like there are when using internet sources, so in a way I understand why we were supposed to find a lot of book sources. In the end it was a pretty good project having to use both books and other sources. Both have their limitations and liabilities but put them together and it should turn out to be a pretty reliable project with a lot of useful information.

Elizabeth Couchum

Research Project Plan

October 8, 2012

Native American voting rights in New Mexico, Arizona vs. Nevada…..what was going on in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah for Native Americans vs. the State of Nevada?

Thesis:

With the current political climate, the right to vote has been challenged in many swing states.  With many in arms about their right to vote in this very important election year, many are standing their ground to have their voices be heard, while some are working very hard to suppress the vote for those who may vote for the right candidate.  While many think that this is something very new, to have many votes challenged, sadly this has happened before.  Native Americans were not allowed to vote in this country based on their race.  It was not until the 19th Amendment that Native Americans were given the right to vote.  However, many states did not agree with this amendment and did not allow Native Americans to vote for many reasons.  There were three states in particular that fought the Native Americans who were determined to vote. Even though the Indian Citizenship Act was signed into law, when it came to voting, Native Americans did not get the right to vote in many states due to various reasons.  The last states to hold out were Arizona and New Mexico and Utah.  What was going on with these states that they took so long to grant the right to vote to Native Americans? When did Nevada’s Native Americans get the right to vote?  Compared to the State of Nevada, what was the political climate in Arizona and New Mexico and Utah?

Section 1: 

The 19th Amendment and the Native Americans got the right to vote.  How and when did the 19th Amendment came about?  What influences did the 19th Amendment have in the United Sates?

1.  The Nineteenth to the United States Constitution

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution, Wikipedia, (Modified on September 25, 2012) (accessed website September 29, 2012)

a. In August 1920 the 19^th Amendment was ratified to allow women the right to vote.  According to the United States Constitution the 19^th Amendment states that, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.”

2.  “Native American Citizenship 1924, Indian Citizenship Act,”

http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/frameset_reset.html?http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/stories/0701_0146.html, Nebraskastudies.org 1900-1924, (Accessed website September 29, 2012)

            a. Native Americans who are indigenous to the United States did not get the right to vote until much later than women.  In 1924, Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act.  This Act proclaims, “BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and house of Representatives of the United States of

America in Congress assembled, That all non-citizen Indians born within the territorial limits of the United States be, and they are hereby, declared to be citizens of the United States: Provided That the granting of such citizenship shall not in any manner impair or otherwise affect the right of any Indian to tribal or other property. (Approved June 2, 1924)”

 3. Daniel McCool, Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights to Act, and the Right to Vote, University of Utah 2007.

a. United States Constitution gives the states “the power to prescribe rules for the times, places, and manner of holding elections.”  However, Congress has the power to “alter regulations”.  This has led to conflict between the Federal Government and states.  pg. ix

b. There were major efforts to “define” the Native Americans and their place in the United States and whether or not they were a part of the country’s landscape.  Also, who had sovereignty?  Was it the Native Americans or “Indians”?  No. So since they were not considered citizens, they were not allowed to vote.  According to the U.S. attorney general, Caleb Cushing, in 1856:

“The simple truth is plain that the Indians are the subjects of the United States, and therefore are not, in mere right of home-birth, citizens of the United States…This distinction between citizens proper, that is, the constituent members of the political sovereignty, who are not therefore citizens, are recognized in the best authorities of public law.  (Official Opinions of the Attorneys General 1856, 749-50)” pg. 2

3.  The 13th Amendment abolished slavery in 1865.  Congress began putting together the 14th Amendment in 1866.

a.  “That all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States.” (Civil Rights Act of 1866) pg. 3

i.  Note:  Wisconsin’s Senator James Doolittle, while debating on the senate floor, proposed to add “Indians not taxed”.  He made two arguments regarding the Native Americans.  One was that they were an “inferior race, and therefore were simply not good enough to hold the title of citizen.”  Doolittle’s second argument was that, “if granted citizenship, and implicitly the right to vote, they could vote in sufficient numbers to change the power structure and overwhelm their white neighbors.” pg. 3-4

ii.  Note:  Another senator made the argument that “Indians were not under the jurisdiction of the United States, and therefore were excluded from the provisions of the proposed amendments.”  pg. 4

4.  Solving the “Indian Problem” in the Nineteenth Century.

a.  Genocide.  As stated by Senator Doolittle, “put…out of the way.”  In other words, “all Indians should be exterminated.”  pg. 5

b. Another solution was to put the “Indians” away until they became “civilized” and were able to socialize with the white people.  So reservations were “set aside for Indians” until they were ready to be with white people. pg. 5

i. Treaties were worked out with Native American tribes to create reservations in 1868.

ii. The treaties came with provisions so that Native Americans can gain “citizenship by receiving a patent for land….. and be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of such citizens, and shall, at the same time retain all rights to benefits accruing to Indians under this treaty,” (Treaty of Fort Laramie 1868, Article 6). pg. 5

iii. Note:  Policymakers also wanted Native Americans to give up citizenship if they could not give up their tribal affiliations and culture.  “Citizenship and the right to vote would be contingent upon abandoning one culture and adopting another.”  pg. 5

iv. The Native Americans needed another statute to obtain citizenship.

5.  The Dawes Act

a. The Dawes Act is a statute that passed in 1887.  It divides up reservation land into individual holdings for members of the tribe.  Later, the remainder of the land was sold to white settlers.

“And every Indian born within the territorial limits of the United States to whom allotments shall have been made provisions of this act, or under any law or treaty, and every Indian born within the territorial limits of the United States who has voluntarily taken up, within said limits, his residence separate and apart from any tribe of Indians therein, and has adopted the habits of civilized life hereby declared to be a citizen of the United States….(Dawes Act 1887, 390). pg. 6

6.  Office of Indian Affairs, citizenship to Indians, 1922

a. In a letter to Congress, Office of Indian Affairs identified eight legal procedures or conditions of what will enable the Native Americans to become citizens of the United States.  This will be known as the “Universal Indian Citizenship” or the Indian Citizenship Act, June 24, 1924. pg. 7

i. The letter states, “legitimate children born of an Indian woman and a white citizen father are born to citizenship,” (Office of Indian Affairs 1922). pg. 7

ii. “Indians would not have to give up being an Indian in exchange for citizenship.”

iii. “An Indian could be an enrolled member of a tribe.”

iv. “Live on a federally recognized reservation.”

v. “Practice his or her own culture, and still be a U.S. citizen.” pg. 7

7.  Judith Nies, Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Ballantine Books, 1996 (e-book)

a. Native Americans were excluded from the economy and the political system because they were “segregated within reservations”.  Native Americans were not allowed to vote in the United States.  pg. 224

b. Religion and education among Native Americans were “outlawed”.  “Indian children were compelled to attend white run boarding school, cut their hair, wear citizen clothing, learn English, and adopt Christianity.”  pg. 224

Section 2:

Did the 19th Amendment Change anything in the United States?  If not, why?  What happened in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, compared to Nevada?

1.  Daniel McCool, Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights to Act, and the Right to Vote, Daniel McCool, Cambridge University Press, University of Utah 2007.

a. The Department of the Interior had no idea that the western states would have “opposition” to Native Americans voting. pg. 8

b. A statement was made in 1928 in regards to the Indian voting because there were so many that interpreted the Indian Citizenship Act differently.  pg. 8

c. In 1936, attorney general of Colorado stated that the Native Americans had no right to vote due to the fact that they were “not citizens of the state.”

d. During World War II, Chief Choctaw wrote to the President in the United States.  “Our white friends here say we are not allowed to vote.  If we are not citizens, will it be right for the Choctaws go to war?”  Simply put, yes.  They were expected to fight for their country even if they are not allowed to vote.  pg. 10

e. Fifteenth Amendment 1870 states “limiting voting on account of race.”  States found other ways to “limit Indian voting.” pg. 10

f. There were six ways to limit voting:

i. Residency

ii. Self-Termination

iii. Taxation

iv. Guardianship

v. Literacy

vi. Protecting the Status Quo

2.  “Chavers:  No Voting Right in Indian Country,” http://www.nativetimes.com/life/commentary/3613-chavers-no-voting-rights-in-indian-country, Native American Times, Today’s Independent Indian News, Dr. Dean Chavers, May 17, 2010, (accessed September 30, 2012)

The author writes about conspiracies of why Native Americans did not have the right to vote.  There were many involved in keeping Native Americans from voting and there were also quite a few schemes involved.  The Native Americans who fought in World War II were faced with many problems.

a. Native American veterans still were not allowed to vote, buy a home, get a job, or buy a car.

b. Native Americans faced opponents of the Voting Rights 1965.  Example:  Former governor from South Dakota made comments, wanted to keep Native Americans on the reservation and also raped girls.  He never faced prosecution.

c. Other states to stop Native Americans from voting and were discriminatory against Native Americans were Arizona, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and Washington.

3.  “Voting Rights History, Two Centuries of Struggle,” http://www.crmvet.org/info/votehist.htm, Civil Rights Movement Veterans, copyright 2004, 2010 (Labor Donated) (accessed September 30, 2012)

a. This website gives a timeline in regards to voting rights.  There were two dates that were important to Native Americans.

i. 1924 – All American aboriginal people (Native Americans) were given the right to vote by US Congress.

ii. 1948: State laws denying the vote to Native-Americans are overturned.  In one of the post-war period’s few successful legal challenges, the Federal courts overturn the last state laws (Maine, Arizona, New Mexico) that explicitly prevent Indians from voting. Violence, economic retaliation, and different kinds of legal tricks continue to be used to prevent Native-Americans from voting.

4.  “Indian Citizenship Act of 1924”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924 Wikipedia, modified October 3, 2012, (accessed September 30, 2012)

a. “According to a survey by the Department of Interior, seven states still refused to grant

Indians voting rights in 1938. Discrepancies between federal and state control provided loopholes in the Act’s enforcement. States justified discrimination based on state statutes and constitutions. Three main arguments for Indian voting exclusion were Indian exemption from real estate taxes, maintenance of tribal affiliation and the mistaken notion that Indians were under guardianship, or lived on lands controlled by federal trusteeship (Peterson 121). By 1947 all states with large Indian populations, except Arizona and New Mexico, had extended voting rights to Native Americans who qualified under the 1924 Act. Finally, in 1948 these states withdrew their prohibition on Indian voting because of a judicial decision (Bruyneel). ”

 

4.  Schusky, Ernest, Political Organization of Native North Americans, Washington D.C., University Press of America, 1980.

a. President John F. Kennedy had a task force for Indian Affairs, three objectives.

i. Maximum Indian economic self-sufficiency

ii. Full participation in American life

iii. Equal citizenship privileges and responsibilities.  pg. 286

5.  Nies, Judith,  Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Ballantine Books, Random House Publishing Group, 1996 (e-book)

a. President Kennedy in 1961 recommends the head of Phillips Petroleum Company,

W. Keeler, who recommended the policy of termination.  Under Keeler, there were many others who were
appointed and the “responsiveness to the needs of energy companies continued to be the overriding policy of the BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs).” pg. 276.

 

6.  “Arizona Native American Voting Rights History,” www.nativevote.org/photo/arizona-voting?Sarah Gonzales, September 30, 2010 (accessed September 29, 2012)

a. In 1928, the Arizona Supreme Court ruled that Native Americans did not have

the right to vote because they were under federal Guardianship.

 

b. World War II veteran, Frank Harrison, appealed that decision.  He believed

Native Americans had the right to vote and on July 15, 1948, court ruled in his favor.  Native Americans were able to vote in Arizona.

 

7.  “One Man, Many Votes, Native Americans struggle with the first freedom,” http://alibi.com/feature/23805/One-Man-ManyVote, Santa Ana Star Center, Jes Abeita, v. 17 no. 27, July 3 – 9, 2008

a. A century ago, Native Americans living in New Mexico were not allowed to vote.

A young marine, Miguel Trujillo, in 1948 brought about a case, Trujillo vs. Garley to decide whether or not Native Americans in New Mexico could vote.

b. “He was a person who always felt that Indian people should be recognized,”

said his daughter, Josephine Waconda.

 

c. August 3, 1948, a panel of three federal judges ruled that Native Americans

living in New Mexico are allowed to vote.  They also ruled that New Mexico violated Amendments 14 and 15.

 

8.  Chronological History of Nevada, www.shgresources.com/nv/timeline/, 2012 (accessed September 29, 2012)

a. By the looks of this website, Native Americans were allowed to vote in the State

of Nevada when the United States Congress passed the law that all “aboriginal” people, meaning Native Americans, are allowed to vote.

 

9.  Daniel McCool, Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights to Act, and the Right to Vote, University of Utah 2007.

a. Case in Utah, Allen vs. Merrell, 1956.  The case was brought to the Utah Supreme

Court that had proved a method of stopping Native Americans in voting.  The Native Americans had to choose to either give up their heritage and being able to vote.  If Native Americans were unable to give up their affiliations with the tribe, they were unable to have their voices heard in the elections.  pg. 11

10.  Judith Nies, Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Random House Publishing Group, Ballantine Books, 1996 (e-book)

a. After World War II, it was discovered that the land that was given to the Native

Americans had mineral resources though the Native Americans did not realize this. pg. 234

 

b. There was an effort to “dismantle” the reservations.  According to Nies, “Senator

Watkins from Utah argued in 1950 that while America was spending billions of dollars to fight communism, it was fostering socialist environments on Indian reservations.”  This point was brought back up during the Reagan administration.  pg. 234

 

11.  “Voting Rights Act of 1965,” http://www.crmvet.org/info/votehist.htm, Wikipedia, modified September 25, 2012, (accessed October 7, 1965)

a. The Act states, “voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice,

or procedure … to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color.”

 

b. Outlawed discriminatory voting practices against African Americans.

Section 3:

Where are we now in the Right to Vote for Native Americans and as Native Americans as a whole in the United States?

1.    “Chavers:  No Voting Rights in Indian Country,” http://www.nativetimes.com/life/commentary/3613-chavers-no-voting-rights-in-indian-country, Native American Times, Today’s Independent Indian News, Dr. Dean Chavers, May 17, 2010, (accessed September 30, 2012)

a.  Native Americans are now hold office including state legislature in states such as Alaska, Arizona, New Mexico, North Carolina, and South Dakota.

b. Even though there have been huge steps in Native American voting, there are still problems with voter discrimination.

2.  “Voting Rights in Arizona 1982- 2006,” http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/voting/ArizonaVRA.pdf, Protect Voting Rights: Renew the VRA.org, Dr. James Thomas Tucker and Dr. Rodolfo Espino, March 2006

a.  This report shows that the State of Arizona has a long way to go when it comes to the Voting Rights Act for Native American Indians  as well as the Latino community.  The State of Arizona still has signs of discriminatory effects toward those who have been fighting for their right to vote.

b.  This report is a 92 page report that takes you through the history of voting not only in Arizona, but throughout the country to the representation in Arizona and where the state stands today.

3.  Judith Nies, Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Ballantine Books, The Random House Publishing Group,1996 (e-book)

 

a.  During the 1960s and 1970s all the way through the 1990s, a “new national Indian resistance” came about. pgs. 234 – 235

b. Native Americans created their own programs to deal with their own problems such as “alcoholism on the reservation and prison rehabilitation.” pg. 235

c. Councils were also created for young Native Americans. pg. 235

4. Judith Nies, Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Ballantine Books, The Random Publishing Group, 1996 (e-book)

a.  From 1995- 2005, United Nations declared that this decade was “The Decade of Indigenous Peoples”.  The United Nations announced that this was declared because in part, “Allowing Native languages, cultures, and different traditions to perish through ‘nonassistance’ to endangered cultures must henceforth be considered a basic violation of human rights.” pg. 302

5.  “Tea party groups work to remove names from Ohio voter rolls,” http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/26/nation/la-na-ohio-voting-fight-20120927, Los Angeles Times, Michael Finnegan, September 26, 2012 (accessed October 8, 2012)

a. Activists say they’re challenging some names to ensure ‘election integrity.’ Others say it’s an effort to suppress the votes of likely Obama supporters.

b. A citizen in Ohio received notification that her right to vote “was challenged by a stranger.”

c. A Tea Party organization in Ohio is challenging 2,100 voters in Ohio to “remove their names from voter rosters.”

6.  “Ohio Challenges Legitimate Student Voters,”  http://www.projectvote.org/blog/2012/09/ohio-group-challenges-legitimate-student-voters/, Project Voting Matters, September 28, 2012, (accessed October 8, 2012)

a.   “Ohio Voter Integrity Project, the state arm of the Tea Party-affiliated True the Vote group, submitted the challenges, according to the Columbus Dispatch. Most of the challenged voters were Ohio State University students who she said should be removed from the rolls ‘because they did not provide address details such as apartment or dorm room numbers’.”

Conclusions

The Native Americans or “Indians” as they were called for many decades, faced countless obstacles regarding their life, heritage, religion, education, home, land, and the right to be seen as   human beings in their native land.  Native Americans were given the option to give up their cultural for the chance to vote.  Native Americans were told that they had to fight in World War II, but when they returned to the United States, they still faced obstacles, including the right to vote.  Thanks to the United States Congress, the 19th Amendment, the Indian Citizenship Act, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, made it possible for Native Americans to vote.  However, many states opposed Native Americans to vote and came up with many schemes to stop them.  With many cases and points that were brought by the Native Americans, the courts sided with them stating that the states’ voting rights for Native Americans were, in fact, illegal.

Now, with many Native Americans in the legislature and on many boards in their own towns and cities, there is still discrimination in many states.  Now with the political climate, there has not only been discrimination against Native Americans, but for others such as African Americans, Latinos, students, and the poor, by those who are challenging their vote by many schemes.  The Right to Vote in this country is a privilege that many have fought for in court cases, demonstrations, and war, and looks like that we, as a country, will continue to fight for, because nothing is more important that to have your voice heard.

Reflections

Initially, I thought that the search online for this topic would be daunting.  However, once I started to do the search and figuring out the proper “search words”, I was able to find articles regarding this topic.  The problem though was that many articles repeated each other.  There was no new real information.  The challenge was to do a different “word search” to find articles that presented the information in a different and engaging way.   Another problem that I found was trying to find narratives online of those whose votes were challenged.  I was able to find one article about a daughter who discussed her father and his fight not only for him to vote, but to allow all Native Americans to vote in Arizona.

 

I had much better luck with books that unfortunately are not online nor in e-books.  There have been several authors who did extensive research in this topic and many others that have plagued Native Americans throughout history.  One of the best online research I was able to do what a chronological history of the states that I was particularly interested in to see the timeline of what was going on in the history of the state and when Native Americans were allowed to vote.  The western states as well as the southern states in the United States had issues with voting rights.  In the south, it was all about the African Americans, but in the west, it was about Native Americans.  With the exception of Nevada who allowed Native Americans to vote as soon as the 1924 Voting Rights was passed, the surrounding states opposed the Native Americans with every turn.  Though I did not look at the State of California, I did find that the state had allowed Mexicans the right to vote before Native Americans.   In New Mexico, some women were given the right to vote before Native Americans as well.  In all of my research, I found that the main reason all states, with the exception of Nevada, many lawmakers were afraid of the same thing, by giving Native Americans the right to vote will cause a shift in the power of balance for these states.  Then there was the land, which has always been a major source of entitlement in the United States.  When it was found that the reservations had source of minerals, such as water and gas, the fight for land was on even though it was the Federal Government gave that land to the Native Americans.  Even today, water rights are still being fought for between the government and Native Americans.

 

While researching this topic and reading up on the voting rights in the United States, I have been watching the political race of 2012.  I could not help noticing when it came out that many voter rights in Florida, Ohio, and South Carolina were being challenged.  Many citizens, like the Native Americans, are angry.  The right to vote in this country is a guaranteed right.  The voting According to the 19th Amendment, “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex.”  With organizations such as the Tea Party and their affiliations, voter rights are being challenged today without any regard to the 19th Amendment or the Voting Rights Act of 1965.  All of this challenging of votes are done to get the person that these organizations want into the White House.  It seems that history is repeating itself.  I felt that I should add to this paper a little of where we are as a nation when it came to voting rights.  I wanted to show that when Native Americans were fighting for the right to vote, how politicians in many states made it almost impossible even though the Native Americans had the Federal Government to back them up.  Now in 2012, many organizations and a few politicians in certain swing states are making it hard for anyone who may vote for the “wrong” candidate to vote in the general election this November.    My reflections are that as we make progress for equality, down the road there will continue to be obstacles for everyone and anyone who may challenge the beliefs of a group who still believe that this country should be seen as a certain way.

Bibliography

 

Primary Sources

 “Arizona Native American Voting Rights History,” www.nativevote.org/photo/arizona-voting?Sarah Gonzales, September 30, 2010 (accessed September 29, 2012)

 “Chavers:  No Voting Right in Indian Country,” http://www.nativetimes.com/life/commentary/3613-chavers-no-voting-rights-in-indian-country, Native American Times, Today’s Independent Indian News, Dr. Dean Chavers, May 17, 2010, (accessed September 30, 2012)

 Chronological History of Nevada, www.shgresources.com/nv/timeline/, 2012 (accessed on September 29, 2012)

 “Indian Citizenship Act of 1924”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924 Wikipedia, modified October 3, 2012, (accessed September 30, 2012)

Nies, Judith, Native American History, A Chronology of the Vast Achievements of a Culture and their Links to World Events, Random House Publishing Group, Ballantine Books, 1996 (e-book on Nook)

 “Native American Citizenship 1924, Indian Citizenship Act,”

http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/frameset_reset.html?http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0700/stories/0701_0146.html, Nebraskastudies.org 1900-1924, (accessed website September 29, 2012)

 The Nineteenth to the United States Constitution http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution, Wikipedia, (Modified on September 25, 2012) (accessed website September 29, 2012)

“Ohio Challenges Legitimate Student Voters,”  http://www.projectvote.org/blog/2012/09/ohio-group-challenges-legitimate-student-voters/, Project Voting Matters, September 28, 2012, (accessed October 8, 2012)

“Tea party groups work to remove names from Ohio voter rolls,” http://articles.latimes.com/2012/sep/26/nation/la-na-ohio-voting-fight-20120927, Los Angeles Times, Michael Finnegan, September 26, 2012 (accessed October 8, 2012)

“Voting Rights Act of 1965,” http://www.crmvet.org/info/votehist.htm, Wikipedia, modified September 25, 2012, (accessed October 7, 1965)

“Voting Rights History, Two Centuries of Struggle,” http://www.crmvet.org/info/votehist.htm, Civil Rights Movement Veterans, copyright 2004, 2010 (Labor Donated) (accessed September 30, 2012)

“Voting Rights in Arizona 1982- 2006,” http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/voting/ArizonaVRA.pdf, Protect Voting Rights: Renew the VRA.org, Dr. James Thomas Tucker and Dr. Rodolfo Espino, March 2006

Secondary Sources

 McCool, Daniel, Native Vote: American Indians, the Voting Rights to Act, and the Right to Vote, Cambridge University Press, University of Utah 2007.

Schusky, Ernest L, Political Organization of Native North Americans, Washington D.C. University Press of America, 1980.

I.         Title: Humanity and Science: The Paradox of Progress

II.         Introduction: Progress is often construed as an ambiguous concept that beckons a movement for the greater good. People seek progress in personal lives, in communities, in nations, but few can fully describe or define the parameters of this concept. Who decides then? Who determines the claims and arguments of progress? And upon discovering the intentions, who polices the boundaries between what can be accomplished in the name of this belief and what should not be done? It is within these uncertainties that the worst travesties in the world have occurred. Such was the case in Macon County, Alabama, where 600 African American men were selected to undergo an experimental study where the United States Public Health Service monitored the spread and effects of latent syphilis in medicine deprived men. These individuals endured forty years of placebos, metal and arsenic injections, and spinal taps with the understanding that they were receiving treatment for their “bad blood.” Instead, medical professionals manipulated the men of Tuskegee, withheld treatment, and misinformed their condition, with the hopes of unraveling the mystery of syphilis in the African American man, all in the name of scientific progress.

III.         Macon County, Alabama was the perfect setting for the study to take place.

a.    Individuals who lived in Tuskegee were poor, illiterate, and believed they were being offered treatment for their ailments. They had no reason not to believe the doctors and nurses who were overseeing their care. Eunice Rivers, the nurse who befriended the men, convinced the men to stay within the program if they ever chose to leave. Some men thought they were even a part of a social club by participating in the treatments.

a.i.     “Syphilis Study Went on After its Apparent Success.” New York Times, September 13, 1972, p. 30. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119561172?accountid=9649.

b.     The Tuskegee men were told they had “bad blood,” and not knowing what that meant, allowed themselves to be treated as the doctors and nurses saw fit. Charles Pollard, a victim of the study, claimed he was never told he had a STD and did not know that “bad blood” was synonymous with syphilis.

b.i.     Wooten, James T. “Survivor of ’32 Syphilis Study Recalls a Diagnosis.” New York Times, July 27, 1972, p. 18. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119507877?accountid=9649.

IV.         Public Health Services, Centers for Disease Control, as well as other medical professionals treated the men of Tuskegee as little more than test subjects. They knew these men were not receiving treatment. As the years progressed and penicillin became available, they still did not treat the infected individuals.

a.     While the PHS claims the life of the individual is more important than the study of a disease, they continue to discuss the rate of morbidity with men infected with latent syphilis. The report attempts to create justification of the “necessary” study.

a.i.     Shafer, J.K., Lida J. Usilton, and Geraldine A. Gleeson. “Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Prospective Study of the Effect on Life Expectancy.” Public Health Reports 69, no. 7 (1954): 684-690. http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/4588863.pdf.

b.     Selection of the individuals was dependent on one factor, whether the men involved had syphilis or not. This created a study group of 399 infected men and 201 uninfected men. This report discusses the socioeconomic class of the men as “poor” and they were chosen for their low-economic standing. Perhaps chosen because they could not afford education and were thus illiterate.

b.i.     Olansky, Sidney, Lloyd Simpson, and Stanley H. Schuman. “Environmental Factors in the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis.” Public Health Reports 69, no. 7 (1954): 691-698. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2024316/pdf/pubhealthreporig00175-0085.pdf.

c.     This report discussed the variety of tests used to determine the effects of syphilis in its various stages. It is more statistically written, but discussed the Tuskegee Study subjects after 30 years of infection. Although the earlier reports introduced the idea of treatment, it is evident that these men are still being subjugated.

c.i.     Moore, M. Brittain Jr., and John M. Knox. “Sensitivity and Specificity in Syphilis Serology: Clinical Implications.” Southern Medical Journal 58, no. 8 (1965): 963-968. http://journals.lww.com/smajournalonline/Citation/1965/08000/Sensitivity_and_Specificity_in_Syphilis_Serology_.7.aspx.

d.     Even though the 399 men were never treated for the syphilis, Dr. John R. Heller claimed the entire study was never unethical or unscientific, even though all the subjects were African American. He believed that the men were receiving treatment from their local doctors, even though he had no confirmation. In contrast to what Dr. Heller claims, a local doctor interviewed by the New York Times claimed that he was told not to treat the men who were specifically involved with the Tuskegee Study. Coercion or persuasion was influential in keeping the men in the study and from receiving the medical attention they desperately needed.

d.i.     “Ex-Chief Defends Syphilis Project.” New York Times, July 28, 1972, p. 29. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119377466?accountid=964.

d.ii.     Doctor Says He was Told Not to Treat Men in V.D. Experiment.” New York Times, August 8, 1972, p. 16. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119507914?accountid=9649.

V.     The Tuskegee Syphilis Study has left a horrible taint in the minds of the public, medical practitioners, and the African American community. Although the study was being documented through Public Health Reports, it was not until the media became aware of the situation that ethical questions and concerns became evident.

a.     Jean Heller, a member of the Associated Press, received information regarding the study. Her research and initial report opened the doors for media criticism and public awareness. It also explained the study to many of the victims who did not know they were involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.

a.i.     Heller, Jean. “Syphilis Victims in U.S. Study Went Untreated for 40 Years.” New York Times, July 26, 1972, p. 1. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119530241?accountid=964.

b.     Jane Brody wrote an article discussing the lack of medical and humanistic ethics within the study.  She emphasizes how the study is morally wrong, but even more so because the victims were of one race. This evolved from one horrible tragedy to involving race issues after the Civil Rights movement.

b.i.     Brody, Jane E. “All in the Name of Science.” New York Times, July 30, 1972, sec. E2, p. 1. http://search.proquest.com/docview/119474892?accountid=9649.

c.     Reaction from the public, spurred by the media, halted the Tuskegee Study and brought medical attention to the men who survived the 40 years of malpractice. In Pollard vs. United States, monetary compensation was given to the survivors and the families of the victims. Medical ethics became scrutinized and clinical research trials were revolutionized to avoid the stigma that was associated with the Tuskegee Study.

c.i.     Kampmeier, R.H. “Final Report on the “Tuskegee Syphilis Study”.” Southern Medical Journal 67, no. 11 (1974): 1349-1353. http://journals.lww.com/smajournalonline/Citation/1974/11000/Final_Report_on_the_Tuskegee_Syphilis_Study_.19.aspx.

c.ii.     Dawson, George. “Last Survivor of Infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Dies.” Journal of the National Medical Association 96, no. 3 (2004) http://search.proquest.com/docview/214062282?accountid=9649

VI.        Conclusion: The pursuit of scientific progress can lead to ethical dilemmas if humanistic perspective is not taken into account. In the case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, racial prejudices were evident. Lack of medical treatment for the victims during the forty years of study only worsened the stigma that would be associated with the PHS and government aid after its exposure. While the intent of the study was aimed at the progression of syphilis, the objectification of the victims has left a taint within the minds of the African American community and the general public. The pursuit of scientific progress that started the study became a racial and ethical battleground.

VII.         Secondary Sources

a.     Curing Cancer: Clinical Research Trials. Films Media Group, 2003. Films On Demand. H.264, http://digital.films.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?aid=1731&xtid=35050.

a.i.     This small segment discusses clinical research trials in the 21^st century. Although these studies have become more ethically aware and are patient oriented, the fear among African Americans is evident. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is embedded in their fear, which is as pervasive now as it was in the 1970s. This source would be useful in looking at the long-term societal effects resulting from the study as well as noting that the intended scientific progress did much more harm.

b.     Diianni, Denisce, and George Strait. The Deadly Deception. DVD. Boston: WGBH Boston Video, 1993.

b.i.     The documentary interviews survivors and families of survivors after the exposure of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. It would make for a great source in understanding what the victims understood of the study and their reactions upon discovering the true intentions.

c.     Jones, James H. 1981. Bad blood: the Tuskegee syphilis experiment. New York: Free Press.

c.i.     Jones explains the severity of syphilis, as well as terms and brands associated with the STD in conjunction with the study. It would be useful to use this material in regards to fully understanding the disease and cultural implications.

d.     Reverby, Susan. 2009. Examining Tuskegee the infamous syphilis study and its legacy. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. http://public.eblib.com/EBLPublic/PublicView.do?ptiID=475201.

d.i.     Reverby uses interviews with the survivors as well as discussions with journalists in writing this book. She approaches the interpretation with multiple perspectives, which is useful in understanding why the debacle is still prominent in the minds of physicians and the study-aware public.

e.     Lambardo, Paul A., and Gregory M. Dorr. “Eugenics, Medical Education, and the Public Health Service: Another Perspective on the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 80, no. 2 (2006): 291-316. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/bulletin_of_the_history_of_medicine/v080/80.2lombardo.html.

e.i.     This perspective is unique in that is discusses the intentions of the Tuskegee Study in relation to eugenics in medicine. The authors claim that the original instigators of the study were eugenics students and used this background in forming the foundation of the study. It portrays the Tuskegee Syphilis Study on the same horrific grounds as the Nuremberg Trials.

f.      White, Robert M. “Challenges in a Narrative About the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis.” Journal of Transcultural Nursing 19, no. 2 (2008): 105-106. http://tcn.sagepub.com/content/19/2/105.full.pdf+html.

f.i.     This perspective attacks the sensationalism news reports and claims thirty years after the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. This article is important because it ensures that as time occurs, dramatizations should not distort the truth of the events. While it is important that everyone should know and remember the horrors of this study, exaggerations and fallacies will not help the push for ethical concerns in research and trials.

 

Reflections

            There are many good reasons why primary sources should be digitized and available for the general public. Readily accessible information brings knowledge and awareness to certain topics. In this case, I was able to garner information directly from the Public Health Reports in regards to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. While the majority of digitized sources were unavailable through online portals, the few I found were able to provide insight from very unique perspectives, even if I did not agree with them. I was able to find articles from digitized versions of the New York Times, which provided the foundation for this paper.

Majority of my challenges occurred early on, as I attempted to use online databases. Many of the databases provided articles, books, and film, but unfortunately they were all secondary sources. As I delved further into my research, I attempted to use big data sites, hoping an aggregation of sources would award me with a plethora of information. Unfortunately, every database I used was unable to provide me with information concerning this specific study, instead providing information about the Tuskegee Airmen. Oddly enough, it was the Boise State Library database that awarded me the most as I found journal subscriptions with the Southern Medical Journal, Public Health Reports, and historic newspapers.

I picked a topic from the 20^th century, which greatly helped in the acquisition of digitized primary sources. And while I did find sources that were beneficial to my paper, more than I thought I would find, the majority of the sources came from the 1970s newspaper articles. Having the restriction of only using digitized primary sources limited my abilities in gaining insight into the origins of the Tuskegee Study. The study began in 1932, but the earliest primary source came from the 1950s, that is twenty years of primary sources I am unable to interpret. I would have to rely on physical primary sources (i.e. health reports, coronary reports, oral histories) or secondary sources if I wanted to truly stabilize my arguments and claims.

I truly believe that digitizing sources is beneficial for researchers, regardless of education experience. It was easier to find information, analyze findings, and interpret the story without having to do the legwork of finding each individual source through books, archives, or oral histories. However, researchers should also be aware that relying solely on digitized primary sources could be very dangerous. Limitations on sources can create misinterpretations, and it is important that all aspects of a history be told as accurate as possible. Writing historical research papers is difficult, and until all sources (both primary and secondary) are digitized and available through online sites or databases, physical legwork will always be required.

Research Project Plan
“December 7, 1941-a date which will live in infamy- the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.” President Roosevelt said to Congress on 8 Dec 1941. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/7-2-188/188-31.html
This sudden and deliberate attack is construed as very clear for many, but there are still those which choose to believe that it was a government conspiracy to pull the United States into the war. The United States did every action possible considering that they believed the Japanese were too weak for such a devastation attack. The American Government and the Armed Forces, had no clear definable information that would have given Pearl Harbor any warning for the attack that would have prepared the defenses with enough time to save the countless lives lost on 7 December 1941. The United States Government hid nothing from the congressional panels and are harboring nothing but regret about the incident on Oahu. The Government received plenty of warning, but conditions and chance provided a perfect environment for a sudden and deliberate surprise attack which left the United States Military completely exposed and vulnerable.

US did not know the attacks would happen before 7 December 1941.

– The US warned other nations of emanate attack and deployed aerial survalence of Hawaii. “Consider this dispatch a war warning. The negotiations with Japan in an effort to stabilize conditions in the Pacific have ended. Japan is expected to make an aggressive move within the next few days. An amphibious expedition against either the Philippines, Thai, or Kra Peninsula or possibly Borneo is indicated by the number and equipment of Japanese troops and the organization of their naval task forces.” However they did not expect Pearl Harbor. http://ibiblio.org/pha/pha/army/chap_3c.html#138

– Although the attack has shocked the American people there is little doubt that it had been brewing for some years. Japan’s fury over the embargoes and allied support for China prompted a declaration of war. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7/newsid_3494000/3494108.stm

– The secretary of war stated, “”Negotiations with Japan appear to be terminated to all practical purpose with only the barest possibilities that the Japanese Government might come back and offer to continue. Japanese future action is unpredictable but hostile action possible at any moment.” Stark to Kimmel, November 27, 1941, Pearl Harbor Attack, 2301. Smith, Jean Edward, FDR, Random House, (New York, 2007). http://books.google.com/books?id=cC4Akk8UKNoC&pg=PA529&lpg=PA529&dq=Negotiations+with+Japan+appear+to+be+terminated+to+all+practical+purpose+with+only+the+barest+possibilities+that+the+Japanese+Government+might+come+back+and+offer+to+continue&source=bl&ots=soOopjjuUD&sig=jt69rSMHx9NMEM2_90mxIeid0h8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jahwULCoCMa02AXaloGABg&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q&f=false

– However, when Secretary of the Navy arrived in Hawaii a few days after December 7, following the Japanese attack, Admiral Pye testified his (Secretary Knox) first remark was: “No one in Washington expected an Attack [on Pearl Harbor] even Kelly Turner.” Admiral Kelly Turner was in the War Plans Division of the Navy and was the most aggressive-minded of all. http://ibiblio.org/pha/pha/army/chap_3c.html#138

– “To be sure it is observed that the “hope * * * to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost” and “in view of the attitude of the American Government it cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations.” But these facts had already been known for several days and the only paramount considerations at this time were *when* and *where* Japan would strike. A thorough consideration of the fourteen-part message, when viewed in the light of all other intelligence already available in Washington, reflects no added information, particularly of a military character, which would serve further to alert outpost commanders who had already been supplied a “war warning” and informed that “hostile action possible at any moment.” This conclusion is partially modified to the extent that actual delivery of the fourteen part message to the American Government might be construed as removing the last
diplomatic obstacle, in the minds of the Japanese, to launching an attack.” http://ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_4.html#222

– On Dec 6 1941, the president sent a message to the Japanese Emperor
The Southeastern and Allied Nations cannot “sit either indefinitely or permanently on a keg of dynamite.” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/p2.asp

– “The Government of the United States most earnestly desires to contribute to the promotion and maintenance of peace and stability in the Pacific area” http://avalon.law.yale.edu/wwii/p1.asp

– Naval dispatch from the Commander in Chief Pacific (CINCPAC) announcing the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 7 December 1941. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mcc&fileName=002/page.db&recNum=0&itemLink=D?mcc:1:./temp/~ammem_zlmN::@@@mdb=manz,mharendt,rbpebib,cwband,cwnyhs,gmd,mreynoldsbib,mtaft,cwar,fsaall,mfdipbib,mff,scsmbib,mal,mcc,ncpm,pan,afcpearl,lhbprbib,afc911bib,papr,runyon,detr,mgw,nfor,sgp,sgproto,ww2map

The Carrier fleet which was the intended target for the Japanese was not at Pearl Harbor
– Admiral Kimmel states that “the arrangements I had made for handling material for planes and ground crews at Wake and Midway and of the fact that I was sending the Enterprise and the Lexington to Midway. http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/myths/Missing_Carriers.html

– “Admiral Halsey: A great deal depends, sir. We might have had a very much worse catastrophe here if these vessels had been in the process of sortieing when this happened. For instance, my ship, my task force had planned to be off Pearl Harbor about seven o’clock in the morning, and by the grace of God we had bad weather out there that held us up and I could not have gotten in until about four o’clock in the afternoon.” http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/myths/Missing_Carriers.html

– Carrier Locations http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-9.htm

– The Fleet at Pearl Harbor was not prepared for attack, and the ship present were prepared for quick action in the Philippines. http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-2.htm

– The total destruction of the fleet by the numbers. http://www.nationalww2museum.org/learn/education/for-students/ww2-history/ww2-by-the-numbers/pearl-harbor.html

– Oral History“So we cruised around out there and I had the watch at about four or four-thirty in the morning, five o’clock just as dawn was breaking, and all of a sudden I see a big shape of a carrier through my goggles, sort of off Barbers Point, and I immediately go to general quarters, man the guns, man the torpedo tubes, get ready to fire torpedoes, and about that time the carrier puts a searchlight up and shows the American flag flying. That was the Enterprise just as I was about to launch torpedoes. It had been delivering planes to Wake Island and on its way home the cruiser with it had had propeller problems. They had to send a diving team down to sort of fix the propeller; otherwise the Enterprise would have been at its dock there and would have been sunk by the Japanese. Because they came in and I think they had, was it the [USS] Utah [AG-16] or some training ship was there and they splintered it to smithereens, just because they were diving at a target location without wondering just what it was. And then, of course, the Enterprise launched her planes and about a third of them got shot down, because by then our gunners were shooting at anything that moved in the air without identifying it. Nobody knew how to identify airplanes, especially not people who just were bombed unexpectedly. I think, you know it was strange, for a couple of days before Pearl Harbor we’d been getting submarine contacts out there when we were out there cruising around. Reported them, but nobody paid much attention.”
http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq66-3d.htm

The radar picked up the aircraft for nearly 1 hour, but they ignored the warning purposefully.
– Among the records are a 31 ½” by 21 ¾” radar plotting chart on which Privates Joseph L. Lockard and George E. Elliot recorded some unusual activity. http://congressarchives.tumblr.com/post/13870528815/on-the-morning-of-december-7-1941-japanese

– Lockard and Elliot were on duty for training at the recently opened Opana Mobile Radar Station located on the northern tip of Oahu. At 7:02 a.m., they noticed radar signals that indicated a large number of aircraft approaching the island from the north at a distance of 132 miles. They continued to track the approach of the aircraft until 7:39 when the radar signals were disrupted by back waves bouncing off nearby mountains. Their last sighting placed the approaching airplanes at 20 miles distance. Lockard and Elliot phoned the Information Center at Fort Shafter, located several miles east of Pearl Harbor, to report “a flight of some sort.” The control officer on duty concluded that the signals they reported were either a naval patrol flight or American B-17s from California that were scheduled to arrive on the same day. Within minutes, they would all learn that the Japanese had mounted a surprise attack. http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2001/nr01-68.html

– It could be clearly stated that America was brought into WWII on 7 December 1941, when the Japanese deliberately bombed Pearl Harbor. Two signalmen, Pvt. Joseph L. Lockhart and Pvt. George A. Elliott, were stationed at the north shore of Oahu, operating their radio aircraft-detection device, called RADAR, (Radio Direction and Ranging). They were operating a SCR-170, which was very new and very secret. At 0702, Lockard and Elliott spotted an echo on the oscilloscope such as neither of them had ever seen before. By their calculations, a large flight of airplanes was 132 miles off Kahuku Point and approaching at a speed of three miles a minute. At 0720, Lockard and Elliott made a call to the information center at Fort Shafter where Lieutenant Kermit Tyler took the call. Lieutenant Tyler told the signalmen to “forget it”. The Japanese air attack on Pearl Harbor began at 0755. http://www.signal.army.mil/ocos/museum/msgctr.asp

The solutions did not only answer questions, they also created more questions. The American Government and the Armed Forces, had no clear definable information that would have given Pearl Harbor any warning for the attack. They knew that Japan was preparing for war and made many actions to deter them from provocation. Circumstances and coincidence provided that the carriers were out to sea, and the Army personnel ignored the incoming radar signals of the Japanese airplanes. The event was indeed a complete and utter surprise which in turn left the United States Army and Navy completely exposed and vulnerable.

Annotated bibliography of secondary sources
Borg, Dorothy, and Shumpei Okamoto. 1973. Pearl Harbor as history: Japanese-American relations, 1931-1941. New York: Columbia University Press.
Feis, Herbert. 1950. The road to Pearl Harbor; the coming of the war between the United States and Japan. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Goldstein, Donald M., Katherine V. Dillon, and J. Michael Wenger. 1991. The way it was: Pearl Harbor, the original photographs. Washington: Brassey’s (US).
Keegan, John. 1996. The battle for history: re-fighting World War II. New York: Vintage Books.
Prange, Gordon W., Donald M. Goldstein, and Katherine V. Dillon. 1981. At dawn we slept: the untold story of Pearl Harbor. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Wagner, Margaret E., David M. Kennedy, Linda Barrett Osborne, and Susan Reyburn. 2007. The Library of Congress World War II companion. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Wohlstetter, Roberta. 1962. Pearl Harbor; warning and decision. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press.

Reflections
The great thing about digital media is how easily searchable and readable most of it is. I was able to search general terms such as Pearl Harbor, World War II, and Japan Attacks. I found a plethora of primary sources from Congressional documents, newspapers, Navy and Army records, to oral histories online. The vast amount of information lead me to adapt from a general idea to a thesis rather quickly after reading resources from non-scholarly sites and comparing them to what the primary sources actually say. The planted myths in our culture changed the story. I uncovered investigative hearings and primary documents which allowed me to create my own hypothesis as if I was around in 1941.
However, there were several issues with online media. Validation of documents, of website official capacity, verification of sources, and historical contradiction were some of the issues that plague my research. The primary problem I had was validating the documents as transcribed as truth. The author of the webpage could easily miscalculate or misrepresent the original document in his rendering to digital from the source. There are few ways to verify quality, most which include visiting Washington or other cities to physically view original documents. The other issue, I had been to ensure the documents were in a source that had official or scholarly representation that operated to preserve history. The site http://congressarchives.tumblr.com/ was difficult to review because it is formulated on a tumblr site, but after reviewing multiple pages on this site and comparing to official sites, the photographs matched the data. I used a primary source from this page, because it was a picture of the original document which is held in the National Archives.
Lastly, I had problems with contradictions of sources. I did not include the Japanese miniature submarine that was reported sank off the coast of Oahu an hour before the Pearl Harbor attack because the official records contradicted each other. The Navy claims they sunk it, while the army claims the Navy only attacked it, and the Congressional hearings spoke little about it or the transmission they claimed to have sent. I was confused with all of the contradictions and discrepancies. I chose to leave it out because I could not confirm which website is more official as they were all published by their departments within the same entity, the Department of Defense. However whether or not the submarine was sunk, the message sent to the Deptarment of the Navy was encrypted and took over an hour to decode and would not have helped in the defense of Oahu anyway.
Overall, this exercise helped me research sites not only for my paper but also for myself. I had to search on each site for the authenticity and scholarly representation. The efforts to investigate each source were timely and effective. Using the majority of sources was simple and easy, however had to be thoroughly examined for historical accuracy.

The Democratization of Chile in the Twentieth Century

Introduction: The people of Chile experienced political, social and economic upheaval during the twentieth century.  In the latter half of the century, World War II, globalization, and the Cold War affected the nation of Chile in spite of her distance from the world powers.  Chile experienced autocratic rule as well as democratic rule following World War II.  Nonetheless, as evidenced by the expanding freedoms and rights seen in Chilean constitutions, Chile became more democratic in the latter half of the twentieth century.  Despite the many trials and tribulations Chilean democracy experienced in the fifty year post-war period, the Chilean people gained rights and freedoms.  The increased rights and freedoms guaranteed by Chilean constitutions, the opening of political channels, and increased stability contributed to the democratization of Chile.

First Primary Source: 1925 Constitution of Chile: The Chilean Constitution of 1925 granted numerous rights to their citizens that served to meet the needs of an increasingly diversified Chile, while maintaining a traditional democratic structure.  This Constitution was created by centrists and rightists, along with the assent of military dictator General Ibanez, to ensure Marxist-leaning reform candidates like Fortunato Alessandri Palma would never be elected again.  While this Constitution does create a rather centralized, executive-dependent government, the numerous rights and freedoms granted to the Chilean people are important nonetheless.

• Gave suffrage for all literate citizens, prohibited injustices such as slavery, and established equality under the law.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1925.” 1925 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo II and III http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Chilean citizens were also granted the freedoms of religion, assembly, and the press.
  •  “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1925.” 1925 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo III http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• State-funded primary education became obligatory.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1925.” 1925 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo III http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Legislative amendments and presidential edicts granted suffrage for women in the 1950s, and peasants and the urban poor in the 1960s.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1925.” 1925 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo IV, V, VI, and VII http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Nearly universal suffrage led to increased membership in the numerous political parties representing the full ideological spectrum.
  • The moderate Christian Democrats and the Socialist and Communist parties on the far-left joined Chile’s traditional parties, the conservative National Party, and the liberal Radical Party.
  • In response to fomenting national strikes against the government, Chile banned the Communist Party in 1948; but, the communists simply shifted their power to the ever-growing Socialist Party.

Democracy Disrupted by Allende: In 1970, Salvador Allende, a far-left-leaning communist who espoused socialist values for political practicality, headed the leftist Popular Unity coalition and won with 36 percent of the vote.  Allende failed to create consensus or support for his socialist program; nonetheless, he began implementing widespread change in Chilean society.  Allende suspended constitutional guarantees to ensure that socialist economic policies would indeed supplant capitalism which fomented violent uprisings throughout the nation.

Democracy Denied by Pinochet: In response to Allende’s liberal policies degrading Chilean society, staunch conservative General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte led a military coup d’état in September 1973.  He dissolved political parties, proscribed unions, established strict censorship, and strived to establish an unrestrained free market economy whereby import duties were slashed, price controls lifted, businesses privatized, foreign investment courted, and government spending significantly cut.  Most significantly, Pinochet suspended the Constitution, opting instead to rule solely by decree.  With no constitution in place, Pinochet literally crushed the Chilean left by creating the National Intelligence Directorate Administration which exiled, imprisoned, tortured, and killed thousands of left-leaning Chileans.

Second Primary Source: 1980 Constitution of Chile: After Pinochet effectively purged Chilean society of leftist thought, he legitimized his dictatorial rule by creating the 1980 Constitution of Chile, formally retiring from the Army, and “allowing” the junta to appoint him as President.  All of these democratic changes were confirmed in a national plebiscite, a balloted referendum.

• This Constitution officially reestablished the rights and freedoms previously offered Chilean citizens.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, El Preambulo http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Pinochet’s eight year term as president was endorsed by this Constitution; moreover, the 1980 Constitution allotted the President wide-ranging powers over every aspect of the government.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Provisiones Transitorias and Capitulo IV http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• The Constitution also postponed congressional elections for eight years, effectively banned the communist and socialist political parties, disbanded the lower courts, defined terrorism as any act against the state, established penalties for terrorists, and outlawed “subversive” opinions.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Provisiones Transitorias and Capitulo III http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• The 1980 Constitution also established the right to vote, the right to life, the protection of the unborn, equality before the law, freedom of religion so long as the religion is “not opposed to morals, good customs, or public order,” rights of the accused, the right to education, the preservation of nature, the right to a clean environment, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, the right to social security, and the protection of the family as the “basic core of society.”
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo II and III http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Despite the many rights and freedoms guaranteed in this constitution, the military junta clearly established their supremacy over all aspects of Chilean society.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Provisiones Transitorias http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Amending the Constitution, a near impossible feat, necessitated the president’s approval.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, Capitulo XIV http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html
• Despite this, the Constitution of 1980 disseminated democratic freedoms and rights while allowing the military to ensure stability and conservatism in Chile.
  • In essence, Pinochet established a protective democracy wherein rights and freedoms existed for all but the far-left-leaning.

Third Primary Source: 1989 Constitution of Chile: In October 1988, Pinochet gave the Chilean people an opportunity to vote on the unconditional prolongation of his term by plebiscite.  Those voting “no” to the reelection and subsequent unconditional prolongation of Pinochet’s presidential term won by less than ten percent and presidential elections were held in December 1989.  After the election, Pinochet reformed his 1980 Constitution in order to maintain the changes he had instituted in Chilean society while ensuring its viability as well as his personal safety.

• This 1989 Constitution of Chile was nearly identical to its 1980 predecessor.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1989.” 1989 Chilean Constitution. Political Database of the Americas. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies. http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Chile/chile89.html
• Pinochet reclaimed his position as the leader of the Army and initially succeeded in making it impossible to try any member of the armed forces for human rights abuses.
• The civil government and the military became independent once again.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1989.” 1989 Chilean Constitution. Political Database of the Americas. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies. Capitulo I and X http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Chile/chile89.html
• An autonomous judiciary and an empowered legislative branch now checked the president’s powers.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1989.” 1989 Chilean Constitution. Political Database of the Americas. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies. Capitulo V and VI http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Chile/chile89.html
• Dissident opinions were no longer outlawed, and representation was increased.
  • “Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1989.” 1989 Chilean Constitution. Political Database of the Americas. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies. Capitulo I, III, and V http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Chile/chile89.html
• Full fledge democracy had returned to Chile.

Democracy Ensured: With a vote paralleling the plebiscite results, Patricio Aylwin, backed by the Concentration of Parties for Democracy coalition, assumed the presidency in 1990 as full democracy was again established in Chile.  The fact that Pinochet allowed Aylwin to assume the presidency serves to demonstrate the depth of Chile’s democratic roots.  Aylwin reestablished constitutional democracy in Chile, and all Chileans began to enjoy the fruits of democracy once again.

Conclusion: Despite the social, political, and economic turmoil Chileans experienced after World War II, democratic liberties guaranteed by Chileans constitutions ensured that the Chilean people enjoy expanded rights and freedoms.  Chile encountered dictatorial autocrats, military coup d’états, and oppressive regimes in the fifty year post-war period.  Chileans have overcome seemingly insurmountable odds to gain expanded freedoms and rights.  Augusto Pinochet institutionally oppressed the left during his dictatorial rule.  Despite this overt breach of democracy, the 1988 plebiscite reestablished constitutional democracy.  Once the constitution was amended to permit dissident opinions and ensure democratic rights and freedoms, all Chileans gained democratic liberties.  A shift from autocracy to democracy most definitely occurred in Chile.  Chileans no longer live under repressive, dictatorial autocrats who ignore and suspend constitutions as they see fit; democratic rights and freedoms now exist in Chile.  Increased economic, political, and social stability allowed democracy to take root in Chile.  As evidenced by the increased rights and freedoms guaranteed by Chilean constitutions, democracy indeed strengthened in the late twentieth century.  The citizens of Chile overcame oppressive dictatorial regimes led by repressive autocrats in order to enjoy democratic liberties and a better life; democracy has taken hold of Chile.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

“Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1925.” 1925 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia, http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html, Accessed Oct. 7, 2012.

“Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1980.” 1980 Chilean Constitution. Universidad de Chile, Fuentes Documentales y Bibliograficas para el Estudio de la Historia http://www.historia.uchile.cl/CDA/fh_article/0,1389,SCID%253D10741%2526ISID%253D417%2526PRT%253D10717%2526JNID%253D12,00.html, Accessed Oct. 7, 2012.

“Constitucion Politica de la Republica de Chile 1989.” 1989 Chilean Constitution. Political Database of the Americas. Georgetown University, Center for Latin American Studies. http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Chile/chile89.html Accessed Oct. 7, 2012.

Secondary Sources with Annotations

Angell, Alan. Democracy After Pinochet: Politics, Parties and Elections in Chile. London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, 2007.

This book explains the implications of Pinochet’s autocratic rule in Chile and the landmark plebiscite of 1988.  The book also explains how Pinochet maintained some control of Chile even after the plebiscite.  The book further illustrates how the left and right counteract each other through the use of broad based coalitions.

Brands, Hal. Latin America’s Cold War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2010.

This book explains the overall atmosphere in Latin America following World War II, the impact of globalization in Latin America, and the fight between socialism/communism and democracy throughout the world.  The book also explains that the region was suffering from social and economic instability that allowed political upheaval to occur.  The insights regarding Chilean economics and politics shed light on how Ibanez and Pinochet were able to gain control.

Calvert, Peter and Susan. Latin America in the Twentieth Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990.

This book highlights individual Latin American countries, including Chile, attempting to explain how Latin America changed throughout the twentieth century.  The book has extensive sections on Allende and Pinochet, explaining how both men impacted Chile as a whole.  The book also explains the implications of Chile’s constitutions for the Chilean people.

Garreton, Manuel Antonio. Incomplete Democracy: Political Democratization in Chile and Latin
America. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2003

This book helps to provide a historical and political context with which to view Chile.  The book really stresses the importance of social movements and political coalitions in Chile.  This book also helps to explain how Chile can be viewed in relation to Latin America as a whole.

Smith, Peter H. Democracy in Latin America: Political Change in Comparative Perspective.  London: Oxford University Press, 2005.

This book explains the many factors influencing political change in Latin America, including Chile.  The book illustrates the importance of stability, economics, the Catholic Church, political parties, and other social movements in Latin America.

Digital Reflection: Before I began researching for this project, I had great aspirations about studying the democratization of Latin America as a whole.  I searched around the internet and found a few databases that looked promising.  After sifting through the unorganized databases that kept switching between English and Spanish, I realized that I needed to narrow in on a specific nation if I ever wanted to find worthwhile documents.  I tried searching for Argentina and I was able to find three of their constitutions from the twentieth century, but I could not find the other two.  I looked into Venezuela and could only locate a couple of their constitutions!  Most Latin American countries have had around ten constitutions throughout the twentieth century.  I kept being directed to excerpts instead of full fledge constitutions; this truly became annoying!  The biggest problem with solely using digitized primary sources is the limitations that exist.  Excerpts, usually the part deemed important by the digitizer, are readily available; however, finding full text historical documents are few and far between.

After searching for constitutions from a few more countries, I decided to choose a country that had relatively few constitutions in the twentieth century, in hopes of being able to actually locate them all.  I then found a hyperlink to a university website claiming to house important Chilean documents in a digital format.  This website was very hard to navigate and placed one constitution in the historical documents section, but placed another constitution in the founding texts section.  I could not find the current constitution through the website, but that might have been because the website was so disorganized.  Luckily, one of the first databases I searched through contained the constitution that I still needed.  I searched around for additional primary documents to aid in my research, but I could not find anything besides excerpts of speeches that failed to directly correlate with my research.

If I ever wanted to research the democratization of other Latin American countries, I would have to spend countless hours trying to locate the countries’ constitutions.  I know that most Latin American countries have national archives that would have paper copies of the constitutions; however, I do not have the means to travel and read through all of these papers.  The fact that I was able to locate some Latin American constitutions, and all the Chilean constitutions, while sitting in Boise, Idaho exemplifies the benefits of having digitized primary sources on the internet.  While many primary sources have yet to be digitized, those that have been are available to anyone with internet access.  The opportunities are endless!  Historians of all types can benefit from the digitized sources already available.  With time, one can only hope that the amount of digitized sources will increase.  As for now, historical researchers should not confine themselves to only utilizing digitized primary sources; the fact remains that the internet only houses a minute percentage of the primary sources in existence.

 

The Importance of the Imagined West in American Cultural History

Introduction:

The understanding of the regional history of the American West encompasses both historic fact as well as an imagined story. This history is fraught with tension between truth and myth. No other region in American history has had such a dramatic impact on the retelling of its own history. The West is truly a place where the lines of fact and fiction have been blurred by its own inhabitants as well as by those entities that reside outside of the region. This region’s history is also unique in that it seems to be moving backwards in time. The concept of the “Old West” is seen as a timeless and unchanging place, ridden with images of pioneers, mountain men, cowboys and Indians. In the mid 1980’s, however, the concept of the “New West” was born out of this fictitious understanding of the region’s history. The New Western historians began to debunk many of predominate themes that encompassed western history. They discussed and debated the reality of such concepts as individualism and autonomy in this region. However, as historians continually fought to expose the West as it truly was, the images of “spaghetti westerns,” Clint Eastwood, vast open horizons and blue skies lingered in the public’s mind. Although the arguments of “New Western” historians have produced a wealth of knowledge based in truth, the mythic West continues to be an important part of the American story. Through thorough analysis of primary documents from travelers and inhabitants of the West from the 19^th and early 20^th centuries it will become evident that inhabitants of the region were equally responsible for the creation of the myth and the false representation of the West. By looking at these first hand experiences thematically, the sources will prove that Westerns aided in the development of the Imagined West in an attempt to amplify and validate their experiences in the region and to firmly establish their place in history.

 

 

Section 1: The Experiences and Adventures of Westerners with Native Tribes and Their Impact on the Mythic West.

• Westerners experienced difficulties with Native Tribes throughout Western American History. The way these events have been remembered, however, support the idea that westerners’ collective memory supported and influenced the nation’s understanding of the Imagined West.

a)      The Homestead Act – legislation that encouraged and institutionalized settlement in the West. Created guidelines that homesteaders needed to follow in order to “improve their land” and create a successful economic entity (usually agriculturally based, but also included ranching) This source is essential to setting up historical context and to explain one of the reasons that travelers decide to move West.

• Citation: Department of the Interior, Homestead Act of 1862. Statues at Large p.392-1443, 37^th Cong., 2d sess., 1862.

http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=012/llsl012.db&recNum=423

b)      Poster of Miss Olive Oatman, a “distinguished lady” captured by “savage Apaches” emphasizes the horrid experiences of being captured, but is displayed as part of a presentation aimed at a public audience. People had to pay to listen to the adventures of Miss Olive, downplaying the truthfulness of the experience in order to turn a profit. Her experiences are depicted in such a way as to provide an aspect of entertainment while amplifying the heroism and bravery of her experience as it fits within the paradigm of the mythic West. Illustrates how westerns impacted and influenced their own sense of a false reality.

• Citation: Stratton, Rev. P. B. Five Years Among Wild Savages: The renowned Apache captive Miss Olive Oatman. Toledo, Ohio: Blade Print 1859. The Newbury Library, Chicago.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Contents/image-viewer.aspx?imageid=33119&pageindex=1&prevpos=1874&previous=0

c)      Newspaper article attempting to change the minds of the American Public about the false representation of Indian peoples. Author argues that they are indeed a civil people who are well versed in arts and literature and who want to continue to acquire knowledge. This article would not have been written had the concept of the mythic west not be so boldly planted in the minds of the American public.

• Citation: John Beeson, “To The American People” Fort Gibson, Indian Territory, Jan. 12, 1874. The Newberry Library, Chicago.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Contents/image-viewer.aspx?imageid=6157&pageindex=1&prevpos=1252&previous=2

• By looking at these two pieces of evidence it is obvious that the presentation of grand adventures and encounters with Indians did impact the nation’s understanding of the mythic west. It reinforced the paradigm that there was a mythic and factual West. The newspaper article will then be introduced to illustrate an attempt to dissuade the public opinion.
  • To refer to thesis – emphasize that the effort of western people to knowingly present their experiences in a way that bolstered their bravery/courage etc. against native people for the benefit of solidifying their place within the false representation of the region.

 

 

Section 2: The expansion of Railroads and their impact on the perceived image of the West.

• Railroad enthusiast made significant claims that the West was a wide and open territory inhabited by no one. Maps of this region and time period reflect this understanding.

a)      Map of Railroad – this primary source depicts the rail line for the Pacific Railroad from the 1860s and is void of an Indian presence. Maps of this type would have been used to encourage emigration to the West.

• Citation: “Map Of The Pacific Railroad” Autographed Manuscript Journal, v. 4, 1866-1875. The Newberry Library, Chicago.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Maps/MapsImageViewer.aspx?imageid=95087&list=region&region=The+West&vpath=maps

b)      Map of Native Tribes in the West – This map from the 1810s depict an image of a vast western region as it has already been claimed by Native Tribes.

• Citation: “Map of the country inhabited by the Western Tribes of Indians,” 1809. The Newberry Library, Chicago.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Maps/MapsImageViewer.aspx?imageid=11310&view=all&list=region&region=The+West&vpath=maps

• By juxtaposing these two images it is obvious that there has been a shift in the way the West was being viewed. Over the course of fifty years overland travelers came to understand the West in very different ways. Travelers and emigrant Americans perceived the West in the early 1800s as a region inhabited by “savage Indians,” resulting in a common fear of the region. Within five decades, however, that understanding had changed in part due to the genius of railroad entrepreneurs. By publishing railroad maps that depicted railroad depots, but were void of an Indian presence, railroad tycoons heightened the sense of safety and security in the region, thus encouraging emigration from the East into the West. This, however, was a false representation of the region. Native tribes in the 1860s continued to inhabit the western lands and they interacted (both aggressively and passively) with the newly arriving emigrants. These railroad maps, designed by western inhabitants, illustrate that Westerns had a hand in describing this region as a calm and serene place, and mythic land, when in reality it was far from perfect.
  • To refer to thesis: Easterner’s use of the railroads validated the success of railroad tycoons thus encouraging more false claims which only heightened the mythic appeal of the region.

 

 

Section 3: The Early Western Entertainers: The importance of historical figures and their alter egos in creating the Mythic West.

• Certain Western figured created a name for themselves in the public’s mind through their unrealistic actions. In most cases this inflation of fact was done either by the figure or by the surrounding Western community. In some cases, inhabitants of the West continued to make outrageous claims about these figures even after their death. It was this inflation of fact by the Western communities that added to the larger-than-life image of many western outlaw and criminals. These falsified stories play into the general acceptance and admiration of these historic players.

a)      The life of Jesse James is remembered in terms of the “Wild West.” Primary source documents, written by James undermine his national and mythic image.

• Citation: Applar, Augustus, C. The Guerillas of the West or the Life, Character and Daring Exploits of the Younger Brothers. St Louis, Eureka Publishing Company, 1876.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/contents/image-viewer-blank.aspx?documentid=1212&sectionid=9475&imageid=71561

b)      Rare book highlighting the mythic interpretation of such westerners as Buffalo Bill, Will Bill Cody and mythicizing other events and adventures. Over 250 pages of inflated fact.

• Citation: Triplett, Frank, Col. Conquering the Wilderness: A New Pictorial History of the Heroes and Heroines of America.” New York: N.D. Thompson Company, 1883.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Contents/image-viewer.aspx?imageid=51092&previous=2

c)      Experiences of Calamity Jane – written in first person, emphasizing the adventurous nature of the West and her place in it.

• Citation: Calamity, Jane. Life and Adventures of Calamity Jane. 1896.

http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Contents/image-viewer.aspx?documentid=1311&sectionid=28002&imageid=13891&previous=2&pageindex=1&prevpos=1311

• By looking at the factual evidence written by such western figures as Jesse James and comparing those with myth and story about their life as understood by Western Americans, this evidence will illustrate how the nation wanted to embrace criminals as national heroes.

• To refer to thesis: evidence indicates a desire to create a façade for these criminals. Means of justifying their devastating actions – seen as strong and important people for the West. Reiterate for some cases how these figures amplified their own history and impact on the nation. Acknowledge that some figures tried to prevent this, but their success was limited, therefore proving how strong their mythical images were.

 

Conclusion:

While the history of the American West is vast and all encompassing, there is a distinction between fact and fiction. By acknowledging that this split is consistent throughout the written record of the time it is apparent that the Mythic West is equally, if not more important to understanding the history of that place and time. The primary sources that have survived from the 1800s illustrate that inhabitants of the West were eager to help shape the legacy of their homelands. Westerners inflated fact and exaggerated truth in an attempt to validate their own existence while at the same time creating an essential narrative of the American Story.

 

Annotated Bibliography

Athearn, Robert. The Mythic West in Twentieth Century America. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986.

This book will be used in order to look at the West as a geographic region as a whole and examine the environmental history of the West. This source will also be used to examine the responses of Easterners to the presentation of the Mythic West.

 

Limerick, Patricia, Nelson. The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past Of The American West. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1987.

This book also works to provide historical context. It will be used to explain the dichotomy of the West and help support the concept of the Imagined West. This book will help with the organization of my paper as well, seeing as it discusses the experiences and history of a multitude of people, such as homesteaders, miners, women, etc. Having a solid source that can provide factual evidence will help structure this paper so that the mythic understanding of events will be compared to highly respectable and accurate accounts.

 

Savage, William, Jr. The Cowboy Hero: His Image in American History and Culture. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979.

This source will help establish the paradox between the truthful image of the cowboy and the mythic image. This will help set up a framework for talking about other western “heroes” or historic figures. (used especially for section 3).

 

White, Richard. “It’s Your Misfortune and None of my Own:” A New History of the American West. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.

This book gives a general overview of Western American History. While the book is broad in scope, it is also riddled with specific details and events. This source would be helpful in writing this research paper since it could be used to set the historical context, but this book also has an entire chapter discussing the concept of the “Imagined West.” This source would be used to define the term and explain the concept.

 

Reflection on Assignment

I found this assignment to be daunting at first look, however, over the course of finding a research topic, finding a database that contained digitalized primary documents and then putting together an argument, I realized a lot about how technology in the modern world both helps and hinders the ability to do history.

After a primary Google search, I came across a database of purely digitized primary documents from the Everett D. Graff Collection at the Newberry Library in Chicago.( http://www.americanwest.amdigital.co.uk.libproxy.boisestate.edu/Index.aspx)   This collection of documents is expansive, yet the database is extremely well organized. It made doing research incredibly easier. Having documents categorized by theme, but also being able to do simple word searches of the entire database offered two distinct ways to look at and think about these documents. There is, however, a downside to their particular type of organization. I was forced to interpret these documents through the eyes the Newberry Library Archivists simply because I was looking at the sources as they believed they should be sorted and arranged.

As I discovered maps, letters, pamphlets and rare books regarding Western American history I was shocked at the availability of these treasures. In this sense, I found the database profoundly useful. As I examined the documents, however, I quickly noticed a limitation and frustration with the sources. Handwriting is also an issue for historians. With digital sources you have to compete with the swirly writing, but you also are faced with the image quality of the screen, which in turn  impacting the displayed document. Poor screen quality affects your ability to read primary source documents. As you zoom in on the document the image becomes distorted thus further hindering the readability of a source. Using a paper source and an old fashioned magnifying glass would have made reading hand written letters much easier. Also, as a lover of history I missed the “old book smell” that is associated with doing archival research. Without that physical connection to the sources it seemed to undermine the importance of the documents.

Dealing with digital primary sources has both advantages and disadvantages, however, I believe that the advantages greatly out weight any of the disadvantages. Based on this assignment I have realized that working in the digital realm will take some getting used to.